A Racist Cycle

Chesnutt reveals the intensity of the issue of slavery as perceived in the aftermath of the Civil War. Contrary to the intentions of the post-Civil War period he highlights the policies that continued to limit the power of blacks in the South. Much like Twain he employs satire to reveal the hypocrisy not only within a society of racist white Southerners, but within the African-American community itself.
He traces the issue of slavery first in his short-story “What is a White Man?” The title itself is kind of ironic because it is a question that at this time and age would not have required so much emphasis on thought, but in the post-Civil War era this was a question of actual relevance and importance. He outlines this form of slavery as one that existed through the implementation of policies. that restricted blacks racially. The desire to dictate the who held citizenship seems pretty pointless, especially as Chesnutt traces the different attempts by the varying Southern states to define what distinguishes a black man from a white man. The pointlessness is his aim because he wants to reveal the hypocrisy in the societal decisions and how no matter what attempts African-Americans and abolitionists made in achieving greater political and social rights for blacks, they only resulted in policies implemented to restrict blacks racially. For example, he acknowledges how “before the civil war the color-line, as fixed by law, regulated in theory the civil and political status of persons of color” (124). Yet, after the war he states “these laws have been mainly confined…to the regulation of the intercourse of the races in schools and in the marriage relation” (124). In a sense his tone seems to imply the failure not really in the efforts of the African-Americans and abolitionists, but the failure of their effect on racist white Southerners.
The ironic situation that Chesnutt presents is one in which degradation does not solely exist between whites and blacks, but it becomes a tool of oppression among blacks. “The Wife of His Youth” highlights how the issue of race had become so important in deciding one’s status in society that some blacks aimed to become absorbed into the white race. Mr. Ryder, the main character, recognizes that “our fate lies between the absorption by the white race and extinction in the black” (149). What is even more ironic between the idea of oppression between whites and some African-Americans is the statement that: “Self-preservation is the first law of nature” (149). This idea has been connected to the many atrocities that haunt not only the history of the United States, but Germany and all the nations of the universe. Yet, Chesnutt portrays this form of slavery among the black race to show how racism continued to evolve into different forms. From racial laws that distinguished between black and white to social organizations among African-Americans that excluded people of their own race, Chesnutt reveals the cycle of racism that exists throughout history among both whites and blacks.

The Effect of Huckleberry Finn on Depicting 19th Century Society

To get the fullest and most precise understanding of a piece of literature it is beneficial to have historical background concerning the time period in which the piece of literature was written. Through a historical background it is easier for the reader to perceive the political, economic, and social factors that could have influenced the piece or the author’s attitude. Often in reading a piece of literature if we do not have an abundance of historical evidence from that time period we can look the literary techniques utilized by the author to get a better perception of the author’s tone and his reaction to the events of his time. In the novel Huckleberry Finn Twain employs a number of literary devices in revealing the hypocrisy that existed within the members of the society of the Reconstruction Period. Huckleberry Finn is Twain’s opportunity to criticize the not only the members of the society, but the government which was struggling in its decision and approach in expanding the rights of freed African-Americans. Through the different characters in the novel Twain explores his own reservations about religion and relates this struggle to his opinions about the institution of slavery.
Huckleberry Finn satirizes the government and the members of society after the Civil War. The post-Civil War was supposed to be a time in which the American government not only re-united the Confederate states and the Union, but it was supposed to incorporate the newly freed African-Americans into a reformed society. While the Radicals were in power, which lasted for a seven year period between 1866 and 1873, they emphasized civil rights and voting rights for blacks. Yet, their efforts were thwarted by white Southerners who still believed in upholding the injustice of slavery and passed counteracting legislative policies to limit the power of freed blacks. Through humor Twain harshly and distinctly attacks the government and exposes the hypocrisy within their efforts to “aid” free blacks. Twain’s humor is depicted through his use of dialect, in which he uses to portray the most realistic image of Southerners, and stereotypical images, which serve to highlight the portrayal of African-Americans during the period of the Reconstruction. Twain consciously utilizes crude slang terms (such as the “N” word) in order to depict the region and their attitudes. The manner in which the different characters speak is also representative of the amount of education and wealth that they possess. Yet, Twain’s use of stereotypical images received a lot of criticism especially in their portrayal of African-Americans. Instead of mocking blacks Twain actually dispels these stereotypes against blacks as he thoroughly develops Jim’s character throughout the novel. We come to view Jim in terms of his compassion towards Huck and his knowledge of nature. In Twain’s attempt to dispel stereotypes against African-Americans he presents this idea of whiteness associated with evil. Contrary to the other novels we have read so far in this course where whiteness is associated with peace, innocence, and promise for the future, Twain contrasts these traits to the whiteness of characters such as Pap. Pap represents the largest portion of the white society during the 19th century that were ignorant and held racist attitudes towards blacks.
Twain’s aim is not to dehumanize blacks with his illustration of their dialect, but to critique white American society, especially during the time period of the Reconstruction. He highlights how slavery was continued for hypocritical reasons, especially by a country that was founded on Christian values. Twain’s ideas about the issue of slavery could be seen depicted through Huck at times because Huck presents Twain’s audience with the most direct and practical observations of society at that time. As a young boy with a lot of spirit Huck is easy to relate to, but his moral development is one that the reader also experiences with him. Twain’s most direct expression on the issue of slavery could be traced in one of the final comments in the novel where Tom is defending Jim’s status as a freed black man: “They hain’t no right to shut him up! Shove!—and don’t lose a minute. Turn him loose! He ain’t no slave; he’s as free as any cretur that walks this earth!” (p.316). This final statement serves two purposes: the first is to mirror how Tom, who throughout the novel embodied the stereotypical image of white men of his society, had no compassion towards the struggles and fate of slaves (especially because he had concealed Jim’s fate for days before revealing that he had actually been free), and secondly it depicts the underlying meaning that Twain aims to capture through his novel that no one regardless of race or class status can escape the rules of civilization. Yet, because this statement is contradictory to Tom’s character we can infer that Twain stood against this institution and Huckleberry Finn was his way of expressing his political opinions.

Blood Covers the Landscape

Emily Dickinson’s poem The name-of it – is “Autumn” illustrates heavy images of the death of the soldiers during the Civil War. Independent of the other portrayals of the war, it captures the gruesome side of the war by depicting a landscape that is drenched with blood. She describes the landscapes hue as “blood, an artery upon the hill- a vein- along the road” (2-4). Contrary to Timrod’s description of the beauty of the Southern landscape, it is not exactly clear which landscape (whether North or South) that Dickinson is referring to yet it is quite clear that it wouldn’t even matter because the only color that stands out is the red from the blood of the soldiers. The image of the soldiers’ blood falling upon the landscape is described as the “spill the Scarlet Rain” (8).
Yet, amidst this grotesque imagery there is something serene or gentle about the narrator’s tone. The images of the fallen soldiers are contrasted to symbols of tranquility. For instance, she contrasts the blood shed from the soldiers’ bodies to bonnets when she writes: “It sprinkles Bonnets- far below” (9). This imagery is ironic because not only do the color of bonnets, which are white, contrast greatly to the bloody images, but bonnets symbolize purity, youth, and innocence. Although they are worn by young woman the bonnets are meant to symbolize the youthfulness and beauty of these dying young men that both sides are losing to the war. Supported with the image of the blood falling gently like a “shower of stain,” the innocence of these young men invokes a sense of sadness within. This image of blood raining upon the bonnets could also symbolize the losses of the young wives and mothers of the war as their husbands and sons are dying slowly. Even the movements portrayed within the poem convey the lingering and lengthy event of the battle. This battle is not portrayed as a quick fight between two sides, but the images support the idea that it is drawn out and parallels an image of young men gradually fading away. The flow “a vein – along the Road” seems slow in the same manner that the blood “gathers (in) ruddy Pools” (4, 10).
The effect of portraying the gradualism of the war is to truly reflect and oppose images of the war as just a historical event or tale. Like Horton, Dickinson aims to portray the essence of the war, not an event that is over-dramatized as a heroic tale. The narrator’s calm tone in describing this disastrous battle implies that the war is a dreadful event, but that it is a part of nature. Even the hue of the blood presented in the poem evokes a sense of peace, hope, and rebirth. The colors of red utilized such as scarlet, ruddy, and vermillion are reddish-orange in color which do not represent death, but health. So maybe the narrator is trying to show that the war is a cycle in nature and it is necessary not to dwell on the events, but to look ahead to peace. Depicting all the blood that is shed in contrast to images of nature embodies the heartbreaking aspect of the war. What is even more ironic is the image of all these things in nature being covered by blood. Up until now we have seen nature as the number one influencing factor over everything that happens. We have learned that man cannot rise above nature, nor can man’s knowledge about science destroy nature. Yet, Dickinson confronts this idea with death covering nature. It is not the idea that death in any way can control nature or that the war exerts power over nature, but that the war has greatly impacted nature. The landscape being simply covered by a hue of red portrays how nature is affected not only by the losses of its people, but by their bloodshed.

Whitman's Generality

Mark Neely presents an interesting claim against Whitman in his argument that Whitman disregards the Emancipation Proclamation in his poem “Beat!Beat!Drums!.” Whitman’s poem does address the wars impact in terms of American’s in general, but does not directly mention African-Americans, or the wars impact on the issue of slavery. He traces the idea of the wars impact and destruction affecting all kinds of people in society ranging from the calmest sectors of life to the more hectic ones. He begins by tracing how the war “burst like a ruthless force into the solemn church and scatter the congregation” and “into the school where the scholar is studying” (3-4). After depicting how the war moves within the quietest parts of society he traces the wars impact on the louder sectors of society, mainly the city. He describes how the war can be heard “over the traffic of cities” (9). And questions, through author intrusion, whether or not the more common people in society including the bargainers and talkers will be able to function as they typically do in times of the war. Of course they will because life still persists in times of the war. This generality of the war affecting the common people can support Neely’s supposition that Whitman avoids addressing the important issue of slavery through the Emancipation Proclamation, but it is done in the effect so that Whitman’s poem can appeal to a wider audience. As depicted in the headnote on Whitman, when he openly supported “David Wilmot’s proposal to forbidding the extension of slavery into new territory he was fired as editor of the Eagle” (2847). The headnote later states that he had become disillusioned “with the material conditions of America” (2849). If he could not reach a wider audience by supporting anti-slavery issues, then he could appeal to a wider audience by alluding to the everyday person in society. The headnote also describes how because of the divide in society in accepting Whitman’s ideas he became “uncertain of the role of a national poet during a time of fratricidal war” and therefore, resumed to playing the same role that we see depicted in his poem (2848). He becomes simplistic in order to appeal to a more general audience.
Whitman’s simplicity in addressing the war can be contrasted to Horton and Timrod who both had a target audience that were addressed in their poems. Horton desired to appeal to the writers of history who typically fail to represent history in the point of view of those in power, the Caucasian male. Horton’s directs his focus to brining forth the true situation of the war in light and how it is portrayed as a heroic tale while in fact it is a serious and destructive event. Timrod’s poem is directed to the Southerners to inspire hope and he presents the war in the manner that Horton criticizes. Elaborately portraying the South’s landscape and illustrating the unity of the South creates an inspiring force for the war. Whitman’s audience is of a wider variety because it addresses the common people and is not specifically targeted to one particular audience.